Captagon tablet; credit: UNODC

Abu al-hilalain, (Father of the Two Crescent Moons), is a rough transliteration of the Arabic Street name for the extremely popular drug in the Arab states, Captagon. Captagon has been an issue covered for years, mostly known as the “Jihad-Pills”, for its use by Daesh (ISIS, the Islamic State) during the mid to late 2010s. Its use at the time well documented for both military purposes and its illicit sale out of the now scattered Caliphate. Captagon has once more become mainstream news in early May 2023 because of the recent developments in Syria and the Assad regime.

The Assad regime have used the illicit production of Captagon in Syria as leverage to be accepted back into the Arab League, after Syria`s membership was suspended on 16 November 2011 in the aftermath of the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War. The Arab League promotes interests of Arab states in a coordinated effort, mostly economic and militarily and is in place to resolve possible conflicts between League Nation States and for protection from foreign incursions to better serve overall Arab interests. The Arab League consists of predominantly Sunni Islamic and ethnically Arab nations. With exceptions like Somalia who despite not been ethnically Arab are official Arab League members.

Israel and Iran been the most obvious exclusions in the League, In Iran’s case it is mostly because of sectarian reasons as they are Shia not Sunni Muslims. Also, Iranians usually refer to themselves as Persians, not Arabs which is in all honesty a more accurate ethnic distinction. On the 7^th of May 2023, at the meeting of the Council of the Arab League in Cairo, it was agreed to reinstate Syria’s membership into the League. After Assad`s regime promised to stop the flooding of Captagon into the Arab States from Syria, particularly into Saudi Arabia and The United Arab Emirates (UAE). The most powerful, richest, and Salafist Sunni Islamic countries in the Arabian Peninsula. Where the popularity of Captagon and its illicit use are the most prevalent.

According to a 2023 report by Al Jazeera on the drug Captagon published on the 9th May 2023, a few days after Syria`s reinstatement, they mention Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates in particular regarding seizures of Captagon. 

“In late August 2022, Saudi authorities made their largest seizure as they uncovered 46 million Captagon pills that were being smuggled hidden in a shipment of flour. A spokesperson for the Suadi General Directorate of Narcotics Control said it was the “biggest operation of its kind to smuggle this amount of narcotics into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in one operation”. In February 2023, a man was arrested at Abu Dhabi airport in the United Arab Emirates after he tried to smuggle 4.5 million Captagon tablets in cans of green beans.”

– source – Al Jazeera.

Despite all the evidence indicating that the Illicit production of Captagon and its trafficking been linked directly to the Assad regime itself. They have deliberately caused such a problem of Captagon abuse that the Arab League had no real choice but to re-accept them. I am not the only one making a direct correlation of Captagon been the true reason behind there reinstatement, Al Jazeera and a myriad of other news outlets have made this obvious connection.

This is not a new strategy utilized by the Assad regime, it has been used historically especially since the first and second opium wars of the 19th century. This is the main reason narcotics will never be legalised, as the international state system would never let go of the ability for narcotics to be used as leverage by nation states. There will always be a need for illicit industries, both for national and international strategic positioning. To keep the systems of government functioning it is necessary to fund the civil service, security services and the intelligence services in particular. Narcotics are needed to pass the implementation of laws and policy to gain total authority over the licit and illicit trade of narcotics, most of all for internal leverage.

There is more to Captagon and the story than just its resent use by Syria for international leverage and strategic positioning. Narcotics in the middle east both illicit and prescription are a complex and a culturally taboo issue. An issue under-reported in the west and most of all not understood. As someone who has had personal experience with both legal and illegal narcotic use during my time in the middle east, I decided to write what is the first in a long series of articles on the subject. A series on Islam and the complexities of narcotics under sharia, to its use by mujahideen and by terrorist organisations. The scope this is far beyond what I initially thought, as I have a unique insight into the subject on more than just one level. Captagon purely been a trigger for this investigation, Welcome to Drugs In The Desert, an introduction.

Abu al-hilalain, (Father of the Two Crescent Moons), Captagon ().

Understanding Speed…

Captagon is the brand name for the psychostimulant Fenethylline, which is a codrug of amphetamine and theophylline. Amphetamine is most famously known in the west as Speed. The use of amphetamine outside the context of its original military and medical purposes was originally immortalised by beat generation authors such as William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac. During the 1940s until the late 1950s, where amphetamine was widely abused in America in the form of an over-the-counter decongestant called Benzedrine.

Benzedrine was the brand name for Amphetamine, it originally came as tablets and then later in an inhaler form. William S. Burroughs writes about the abuse of Benzedrine in his 1953 novella Junky, an underrated masterpiece of literature and journalism in my opinion. In Junky, Burroughs preforms an almost scientific study of all the phyco-social effects Junk had during the period. (Junk been a broad label term for mostly morphine and heroin but also used to refer to all opiates in general.)

Despite Junky been predominantly a book on Burrough`s morphine and heroin addiction during the 1940s, he goes through essentially all the popular narcotics of the time, as most heroin addicts despite having a strong preference for heroin become polysubstance abuses. Mostly as a necessity to deal with withdrawal and the depressions and other psychological and physical illnesses induced during periods of heroin sobriety experienced by chronic uses. Benzedrine (amphetamine) was the main narcotic other than Junk Referenced in the book. As its abuse was prolific during the period and was used chronically by many Junky`s including Burroughs himself.

But the use of Benzedrine by the beat generation was not just for purely recreational purposes. Jack Kerouac took Benzedrine to write his most famous novel, On the Road published 1957, written in only three weeks. His three-week binge on speed giving him the ability to do so. But this was not new, Occultist Alister Crowley used cocaine, another psychostimulant with similar but less controllable effects than amphetamine during the 1910s and 1920s. Alister Crowley was the first person other than Sigmund Freud that I know off to chronicle the used of cocaine, available over the counter at the time for the purposes of performance enhancement. When out of money Crowley would ghost write books on Astrology, writing sixteen to eighteen hours a day with four to six hours rest until the work was finished.

Alister Crowley as usual been a pioneer in realising the potential of narcotics as tools and not just recreational intoxicants, he used them over thirty years before Jack Kerouac made it famous and popularised to use psychostimulants by literary figures to write in a superhuman capacity. The use of amphetamine (speed) and Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) has become the staple of many writers and journalists, its performance enhancing ability to be able to write huge amounts of material in extremely short periods of time, for extended periods of time has been an invaluable tool for twentieth century Journalists in particular.

Many have historically needed to use Amphetamines to write long and extensive articles in short time frames for unreasonably quick expectations of publication. Hunter S. Thompson famously used Dexedrine for his writing process from 1964 for about a decade; before he switched to cocaine, which in my opinion diminished his writing ability. As I mentioned earlier with Alister Crowley, during a time where speed was not yet available, he used cocaine for this purpose. Which is much harder to use non-recreationally for its difficulty to control.

The reason amphetamine is so important in the context of this article series in part for is its unique ability of control in practical contexts. The Amphetamine molecule as a medication for its medical and military purposes is mostly used in the form of its dextrorotatory enantiomer. Amphetamine has two enantiomers, levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine. The dextrorotatory enantiomer exhibits more pronounced effects on the central nervous system than levoamphetamine. In short, Dextroamphetamine, more commonly known as Dexamphetamine is a cleaner and stronger psychostimulant, of which most of the medical and recreational effects of amphetamine constitutes.

The previously mentioned Dexedrine, been the famous brand name for dexamphetamine is the most heavily used amphetamine to this day outside of America for its medical and military purposes. Adderall been unavailable in Australia consists of mixed amphetamine salts, the drug essentially been amphetamine mixed with dexamphetamine. In short Adderall is half Benzedrine and half Dexedrine, but despite its notorious reputation, is technically weaker than dexamphetamine by itself. I am currently while writing this article on a slow-release dexamphetamine formulation in Australia.

As I was diagnosed with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in childhood, I have been on more than off, dexamphetamine for most of my life. Despite been on enough speed to intoxicate an amphetamine naïve reader for twelve to fourteen hours, prescription speed has been lifechanging in its positive effect on me. I am far worse off, not been on speed, something that lead to disastrous situations and terrible life decisions when I was on nothing. Mostly leading to states of depression, hyperactivity, and extremely low impulse control. Culminating with self-medication with far worse substances.

People who have followed my work know quite well of my past use of hard drugs as a teenager, been involved in gangs out of necessity at the time. This developed into a severe morphine addiction in my late teens, which would haunt me later in life, long after sobriety, especially during some of my more stressful periods and stints overseas. This includes my time in the Middle East, in countries under strict Sunni Islamic Sharia law and Salafism.

The cyclical re-occurrence of my morphine addiction culminated with a terrible relapse during a heart of darkness style period in Central/South Asia where I was embedded in Strict Sunni Islamic Communities.

Picture I took in Central/South Asia, heavily intoxicated on Morphine during my “Heart of Darnkness, period”.

To give context, I will tell you what my daily over the counter drug routine consisted of during this “Heart of Darkness, style period in Central/South Asia.”

1. One Ten-gram bottle of Multani Kamini Vidrawan Ras (With Kesar) tablets, an Unani medicine (Traditional Islamic medicine from South and Central Asia.) that consisted mostly of Opium. Tablets taken in inconsistent intervals throughout the day until the bottle was empty.
2. One box of Rumorf-10, Morphine Sulphate Ten milligram tablets, one hundred tablets, a large quantity spread out in four doses orally over the day, and the remainder taken in inconsistent intervals.
3. Atarax, Hydroxyzine Hydrochloride Tablets, an antihistamine medication which I used mostly as an opioid potentiator (increases the oral bioavailability and metabolism of morphine when co-administered), to make the morphine stronger. Five tablets taken four times a day with the morphine. Also helped with allergies and potential side effects produced by Opium and morphine.
4. Carisoprodol five hundred milligram tablets, a sedative/hypnotic muscle relaxant, similar to barbiturates, two tablets taken with the four main morphine doses, used as an opioid potentiator along with the Atarax.

I took this on top of my prescription medication, which was taken normally, I was only interested in abusing the Opium and Morphine, while chain-smoking two to three packs of Saudi Arabian Marlboro Red cigarettes a day. This situation occurred in an extreme context years ago in Central/South Asia which I can’t go into for both personal and private reasons.

Picture I took off a box of Multani Kamini Vidrawan Ras (With Kesar) Opium Tablets in Central/South Asia.

Picture I took of a box of the Morphine I was using.

Picture I took of the Atarax antihistamine and morphine potentiator I took with the morphine. I have many more but I think the point has gotten across.

Also a disclaimer none of these photoes of the drugs where taken in Australia. This was all taken in Centeral/South Asia, and a few year ago now. None of this has any relevence in the context of Australian Law.

The point being, that this reoccurring morphine addiction was initially a response to been taken off prescribed amphetamine medication at the worst possible time in my youth. This was directly correlated to the development of the sever morphine addiction in my late teens. The effects of which have cycled in perpetuity, in unexpected ways re-occurring in times of extreme stress.

Nothing else in my life has ever had this effect, only morphine. But it seems my “Heart of Darkness,” time mentioned above, marked the end of this cycle as I have not relapsed into morphine addiction since.

Foreign Correspondence……

Drugs are a tool, Amphetamines in particular, you only develop an addiction to the degree I mentioned above, if you let yourself. Controlled it can be indispensable. In Junky mentioned above Burroughs makes the same point, essentially you only become a Junky because you have nothing else you wish to be. It becomes a life, that replaces everything, in a way a form of initiation. As controversial as these Ideas maybe they none the less have a point.

Journalists, and Foreign Correspondence Journalists in particular, are almost historically obliged to be Alcoholics and drug addicts. It’s very much part of the trade, or a direct consequence of it. Especially in war, Dexedrine is also mentioned by War correspondent, Michael Herr in his 1977 masterpiece Dispatches. Which is a Journalistic and literary novel of Michael Herr`s experience in Vietnam as a war correspondent for Esquire magazine from 1967 to 1969. The books first chapter begins with

“Going out at night the medics gave you pills, Dexedrine breath like dead snakes kept too long in a jar.”

Dispatches, Michael Herr.

Michael Herr later mentions he kept the pills for Saigon, for the depressive episodes he always had there. More relevantly Michael Herr mentions in Dispatches the use of Dexedrine, or speed by Lurps, a name derived from the acronym for the US Long-range reconnaissance patrol (L.R.R.P). Michael Herr mentions a 4th Infantry Division Lurp who

“took his pills by the first full, downs from the left pocket of his tiger suit and ups from the right, one the cut the trail for him and the other to set him down it. He told me they cooled things out just right for him, that he could see that old jungle at night like he was looking at it though a starlight scope. “They sure give you the range,” he said.”

Dispatches, Michael Herr.

The military use of amphetamine type stimulants is well known, ever since World War Two where Blitzkrieg (meaning lightning war, with an emphasis on speed,) where Pervitin or methamphetamine pills were used by the German military for their lightning operation. Introduced the indispensable utility of amphetamines into modern warfare. Methamphetamine under the brand Methedrine became popular in the west as a stronger form of Dexedrine. The Allied military quickly began to utilise Dexedrine in military operations from that point forth.

Methamphetamine utalised by the Germans been the most potent of amphetamine type stimulants utilised as a popular recreational drug. In fact, I believe that its street form, usually produced as slightly cloudy clear rock like crystals. Is the worst drug ever to be unleashed onto the word. Captagon is no methamphetamine, however I felt it prudent to give some context into the co-drugs main narcotic ingredient amphetamine before commencing this long series of articles. And establishing its use outside of medically, not only by the military, but also by journalists, Literary writers and by proxy much of society.

Returning To Abu Al-Hilalain, The Father Of The Two Crescent Moons.

Captagon was created with the intention of been a less addictive substitute for drugs like Dexedrine and Benzedrine, for it includes Theophylline, a similar chemical to caffeine a drug useful for conditions like Asthma. However, Fenethylline or Captagon is just as abuse worthy, the reverence of its street name in the Arab nations alone speaks volumes. The mixture of speed and caffeine derivatives in pills have become immensely popular not only in the middle east, but also Southeast Asia. In Malaysia there where extremely cheap and easy to buy pills know as Shabu, Ya Ba and a red pill whose name I cannot recall.

These psychostimulants where all street versions of Captagon, most mixtures of methamphetamine and caffeine. They were abused by many; mostly taxi drivers were taking them in large doses to work longer hours and for its euphoric effects. For a job they did not practically enjoy, it made it better, it was so cheap I had one driver give me a hand full. Malaysia consists of an eighty percent Sunni Islamic population, with their closest tie been with the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Which was where I first found out about Captagon, over ten years.

Captagon abuse, illicit production and trade in the middle east is not a new problem. Especially for Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, nor is the use of narcotics, their production, and deliberate distribution to the west in Salafist Jihadism new either. This investigation has begun with Captagon, but there is far more to this. Which will be published in the next part of this series on Drugs in the Desert.

Written, edited and published by Interzone 20th of May 2023.